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[[File:Gandhara Buddha (tnm).jpeg|thumb|200px|[[Standing Buddha]] statue at the Tokyo National Museum. One of the earliest known representations of the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]], 1st–2nd century CE.]]
'''Buddhism''' refers to a collection of traditions, beliefs, and practices based on teachings attributed to [[Gautama Buddha|Siddhartha Gautama]], the Sage of the Shakyas, commonly known as the Buddha (the awakened one). The Buddha lived and taught in northern India approximately 2,500 years ago, and since his passing, his teachings have spread throughout the world.

The name ''Buddhism'' was first introduced by Western scholars about 150 years ago&mdash;as they attempted to understand and transmit the teachings of the Buddha to the West. In the Buddha's own days, and as his teachings spread throughout Asia beginning around the 6th century B.C.E., the Buddha's teachings were "known as ''[[Dharma (Buddhism)|Dhamma]]'' (Sanskrit ''Dharma''), what is right and as it ought to be, also as ''[[Buddha-vacana]]'', the word or speech of the Buddha, and also as ''Buddha-sāsana'', the message, teaching, instruction or dispensation of the Buddha."{{sfn|Horn|1997|p=263}}

Buddhism is generally categorized among the major world religions,{{refn|group=note|name=worldreligion|The term ''world religion'' is used here to refer to religions that are not limited to a specific location, tradition, or ethnic group.}} and it is now commonly studied in the religion departments of the great universities in the Western world. However, many contemporary Buddhists and scholars have suggested that Buddhism does not fit the common Western notion of a religion.{{refn|group=note|Many sources note that Buddhism does not conform to the traditional Western concept of a religion. For example:
* Surya Das states: "For Buddhism is less a theology or religion than a promise that certain meditative practices and mind trainings can effectively show us how to awaken our Buddha-nature and liberate us from suffering and confusion."{{sfn|Lama Surya Das|1997|p=16}}
* Dzongsar Jamyang Khyentse states: "Although essentially very simple, Buddhism cannot be easily explained. It is almost inconceivably complex, vast, and deep. Although it is nonreligious and nontheistic, it’s difficult to present Buddhism without sounding theoretical and religious."{{sfn|Dzongsar Jamyang Khyentse|2011|p=2}}
* B. Allan Wallace states: "When we in the West first engage with Buddhism, it is almost inevitable that we bring out one of our familiar stereotypes and apply it to Buddhism, calling it simply a ‘religion.’... But Buddhism has never been simply a religion as we define it in the West. From the very beginning it has also had philosophical elements, as well as empirical and rational elements that may invite the term ‘science.’"{{sfn|Goleman|2008|loc=Kindle Locations 1301-1305}} 
* Rupert Gethin states: "I am not concerned here to pronounce on a question that is sometimes asked of Buddhism: is it a religion? Obviously it depends on how one defines ‘a religion’. What is certain, however, is that Buddhism does not involve belief in a creator God who has control over human destiny, nor does it seek to define itself by reference to a creed; as Edward Conze has pointed out, it took over 2,000 years and a couple of Western converts to Buddhism to provide it with a creed.12 On the other hand, Buddhism views activities that would be generally understood as religious—such as devotional practices and rituals—as a legitimate, useful, and even essential part of the practice and training that leads to the cessation of suffering.{{sfn|Gethin|1998|p=65-66}}
* Damien Keown states: "Problems [...] confront us as soon as we try to define what Buddhism is. Is it a religion? A philosophy? A way of life? A code of ethics? It is not easy to classify Buddhism as any of these things, and it challenges us to rethink some of these categories. What, for example, do we mean by ‘religion’? Most people would say that religion has something to do with belief in God. [...] If belief in God in this sense is the essence of religion, then Buddhism cannot be a religion. [...] Some have suggested that a new category – that of the ‘non-theistic’ religion – is needed to encompass Buddhism. Another possibility is that our original definition is simply too narrow.{{sfn|Keown|2000|loc=Kindle Locations 361-372}}
* Walpola Rahula states: "The question has often been asked: Is Buddhism a religion or a philosophy? It does not matter what you call it. Buddhism remains what it is whatever label you may put on it. The label is immaterial. Even the label ‘Buddhism’ which we give to the teaching of the Buddha is of little importance. The name one gives it is inessential.
*:What’s in a name? That which we call a rose, <br>
*:By any other name would smell as sweet. 
:In the same way Truth needs no label: it is neither Buddhist, Christian, Hindu nor Moslem. It is not the monopoly of anybody. Sectarian labels are a hindrance to the independent understanding of Truth, and they produce harmful prejudices in men’s minds."{{sfn|Walpola Rahula|2007|loc=Kindle Locations 316-323}} 
 }} For example, contemporary scholar Rupert Gethin writes:
:  ...is [Buddhism] a religion? Obviously it depends on how one defines 'a religion'. What is certain, however, is that Buddhism does not involve belief in a creator God who has control over human destiny, nor does it seek to define itself by reference to a creed... On the other hand, Buddhism views activities that would be generally understood as religious—such as devotional practices and rituals—as a legitimate, useful, and even essential part of the practice and training that leads to the cessation of suffering.{{sfn|Gethin|1998|p=65-66}}

The Buddhist tradition emphasizes understanding the teachings of the Buddha, and putting them into practice. Contemporary scholar Peter Harvey writes:
: In its long history, Buddhism has used a variety of teachings and means to help people first develop a calmer, more integrated and compassionate personality, and then ‘wake up’ from restricting delusions: delusions which cause attachment and thus suffering for an individual and those he or she interacts with... Buddhism thus essentially consists of understanding, practising and realizing Dhamma.{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=2}}

In a similar vien, contemporary scholar Carol Anderson writes: 
: Buddhism is a tradition that focuses on personal spiritual development. The Buddha-dharma is simply a starting point; concepts that if practiced and applied will bring peace, acceptance and freedom from pain. The basic tenets of Buddhist teaching are straightforward and practical: nothing is fixed or permanent, all actions have consequences, and all life is interdependent. It enables people to realize and use its teachings to transform their life experience, to be fully responsible for their lives and to find relief from suffering. 
::To do no evil 
::To cultivate good; 
::To purify one's mind: 
::This is the teaching of the Buddha.{{sfn|Anderson|2013|loc=Kindle Locations 286-294}}

==Life of the Buddha==

{{Main|Gautama Buddha}}

===Traditional account===
There are multiple accounts of the life of the Buddha within Buddhist literature. These accounts generally agree on the broad outlines of his life story, though there are differences in detail and interpretation.{{sfn|Corless|1989|p=4}} The account below follows the broad outline of Buddha's life, according to traditional sources.

====Birth and life in the palace====
[[File:Birth of Buddha at Lumbini.jpg|thumb|Birth of the Buddha]]
According to the Buddhist tradition, the Buddha was born in northern India approximately 2,500 years ago to King [[Śuddhodana]] of the Shakya clan and given the name Siddhartha Gautama. After his birth, the sages of the kingdom visited the King and prophesied that Siddhartha would either become a great king and military conqueror or he would renounce the material world and become a great spiritual teacher.

King Śuddhodana was determined to see his son follow in his own footsteps and become a great king and conqueror, so he attempted to insulate his son from all outside influences. 
: In an effort to assure that his son's spiritual nature was never awakened, the King insulated Siddhartha from all pain and suffering. He was surrounded by wealth and pleasure, his every wish granted. Orders were given that no unpleasantness would intrude upon Siddhartha’s life of courtly pleasures and so all signs of illness, aging, and mortality were hidden from him.{{sfn|Anderson|2013|loc=Kindle Locations 364-367}}

Thus, as a young man, Siddhartha wore robes of the finest silk, ate the best food and was surrounded by beautiful dancing girls. He was extremely handsome and he excelled at his studies and at every type of sporting contest. His father arranged for him to marry a young woman of exceptional grace and beauty, [[Yasodhara]]. Siddhartha and Yasodhara lived together in peace and harmony for many years.

Yet despite all of this, Siddhartha still had not yet been outside the palace walls. His curiosity grew stronger and stronger and he pleaded with his father to allow him to venture beyond the palace gates. Finally, when Siddhartha reached the age of 29, his father relented and allowed him to visit the world outside.

====The four sights====
Siddhartha ventured beyond the gates with his faithful charioteer [[Channa]] and they had a series of encounters known as the [[four sights]]. In these encounters, Siddhartha and Channa first encountered an old man, then a sick man, and then a corpse. From these three encounters Siddhartha began to understand the nature of suffering in the world. Finally, they met an ascetic holy man, apparently content and at peace with the world. 

These encounters had a profound impact on Siddhartha. Through the first three sights, Siddhartha came to understand that despite the luxury of his surroundings, and despite the immense wealth and power of his family, both he himself and everyone he loved would eventually have to face the sufferings of old age, sickness and death. And he was powerless to stop this. Siddhartha was also inspired by the holy man who was seeking a path beyond suffering, and Siddhartha resolved that he too would seek that path in order that he could lead his family beyond suffering.

====The spiritual quest====
Late one night, Siddhartha ordered Channa the charioteer to drive him outside the palace gates to the edge of the forest. Once there, Siddhartha informed Channa that he was renouncing his royal life to become a seeker of truth. As a sign of his renunciation, Siddhartha cut off his long, beautiful hair and discarded his royal robes. Siddhartha instructed Channa to return to the palace and inform his father of his decision, and he walked off into the forest.

[[File:Ascetic Bodhisatta Gotama with the Group of Five.jpg|thumb|Ascetic [[Gautama Buddha|Gautama]] with his five companions, who later comprised the first [[Sangha]]. (Painting in [[Laos|Laotian]] temple)]]

Siddhartha sought out the great spiritual teachers of his day. He studied with several teachers, and in each case, he mastered the meditative attainments they taught. But he found that the meditation techniques that he learn from these teachers did not provide a permanent end to suffering, so he continued his quest. He next joined a group of five other ascetics, led by a holy man named [[Kondañña]]. For the next several years, Siddhartha practiced extreme austerities along with his five companions. These austerities included prolonged fasting, breath-holding, and exposure to pain. He almost starved himself to death in the process. 

Eventually Siddhartha realized that he had taken this kind of practice to its limit, and had not put an end to suffering. In a pivotal moment, as he was near death, Siddhartha accepted milk and rice from a village girl and began to regain his strength. He then devoted himself to meditation, taking in the nourishment that he needed, but not more than that. He would later describe his new approach as the [[Middle Way]]: a path of moderation between the extremes of self-indulgence and self-denial.

====Enlightenment and teaching====
At the age of 35, Siddhartha sat in meditation under a fig tree — known as the [[Bodhi tree]] — and he vowed not to rise before achieving [[Bodhi|enlightenment]]. After many days, he finally destroyed the [[Fetter (Buddhism)|fetters]] of his mind, thereby [[Nirvana|liberating himself]] from the [[Saṃsāra|cycle of suffering and rebirth]], and arose as a [[Buddhahood#Samyaksambuddha|fully enlightened being]]. 

After a period of deep reflection, the Buddha sought out his five former companions (with whom he had practiced austerities). He gave his first teaching to this group of ascetics, in which he explained to them his ''middle way'' approach and the [[four noble truths]].

The Buddha spent the rest of his life traveling throughout northeastern India and teaching the [[Dharma|path of awakening]] he had discovered.{{sfn|Skilton|1997|p=25}} He died at the age of 80 (483 BCE) in [[Kushinagar]], India.

===Historical account===
Scholars are hesitant to make unqualified claims about the historical facts of the Buddha's life. Most accept that he lived, taught and founded a monastic order, but do not consistently accept all of the details contained in his biographies.{{sfn|Buswell|2003|p=352}}{{sfn|Lopez|1995|p=6}}

According to author Michael Carrithers, while there are good reasons to doubt the traditional account, "the outline of the life must be true: birth, maturity, renunciation, search, awakening and liberation, teaching, death."{{sfn|Carrithers|1986|p=10}} In her biography of the Buddha, [[Karen Armstrong]] writes, 
: It is obviously difficult, therefore, to write a biography of the Buddha that meets modern criteria, because we have very little information that can be considered historically sound... [but] we can be reasonably confident Siddhatta Gotama did indeed exist and that his disciples preserved the memory of his life and teachings as well as they could.{{sfn|Armstrong|2004|p=xii}}

The evidence of the early texts suggests that [[Gautama Buddha|Siddhārtha]] was born in a community that was on the periphery, both geographically and culturally, of the northeastern Indian subcontinent in the 5th century BCE.{{sfn|Gombrich|2002|p=49}} 

The Buddha was born into the "Shakya" clan, which historians believe to have been organized into either an oligarchy or a republic. Historians suggest that Siddhartha's father was likely an important figure in the republic or oligarchy, rather than a "king" as described in the traditional biographies.{{sfn|Gombrich|2002|p=49}}

==Basic concepts==

===Middle Way===
{{Main|Middle Way}}
As told in the traditional life story of the Buddha, before his awakening, Siddhartha Guatama had experienced two extremes in life. As a child and young man, Siddhartha had lived a life of great luxury, and all of his earthly desires were fulfilled. Then as a spiritual seeker, Siddhartha had practiced extreme asceticism, denying his body food and comfort. Siddhartha came to realize that neither of these extremes led to a path beyond suffering. It was only when he sought a ''middle way'' between these extremes, and focused one-pointedly on meditation, that Siddhartha was able to fully awaken. 

Therefore, in his [[Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta|first teaching]] as the Buddha, he taught the principle of the ''middle way'', in which he advocated a path that avoided the two extremes of self-indulgence or self-denial.{{sfn|Ajahn Sucitto|2010|pp=21-22}}{{refn|group=note|Note that the term ''middle way'' is also used to indicate the middle ground between certain metaphysical views (for example, that things ultimately either do or do not exist).{{sfn|Kohn|1991|pp=131, 143}}}}

: The Middle Way is a life lived between the extremes of self-denial and self-indulgence and lies at the heart of Buddhism even today. The Buddha wanted his companions to understand that austerity would destroy their health and undermine their ability to realize enlightenment for themselves. To cultivate a moral lifestyle hand in hand with a mindful meditative practice is to walk the Middle Way. Despite the current diversity of Buddhist belief, the Middle Way remains a commonality shared by all.{{sfn|Anderson|2013|loc=Kindle Locations 563-567}}

===The Four Noble Truths===
{{Main|Four Noble Truths}}
[[File:Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita Dharmacakra Discourse.jpeg|thumb|250px|The Buddha teaching the Four Noble Truths. [[Sanskrit]] manuscript. [[Nalanda|Nālandā]], Bihar, India.]]
In the Buddha's first teaching, after presenting the concept of the Middle Way, the Buddha introduced the Four Noble Truths. The Four Noble Truths are said to provide a conceptual framework for all of Buddhist thought. These four truths explain the nature of ''[[dukkha]]'' (suffering, anxiety, unsatisfactoriness), its causes, and how it can be overcome. 

The four truths are:{{refn|group=note|name=fnt1|See the article [[Four Noble Truths]] for further details and citations.}}
# The truth of ''dukkha'' (suffering, anxiety, unsatisfactoriness{{refn|group=note|name=translation|For clarification of translations, see [[Dukkha#Translating the term dukkha]].}})
# The truth of the origin of ''dukkha''
# The truth of the cessation of ''dukkha''
# The truth of the path leading to the cessation of ''dukkha''

The first truth explains the nature of ''[[dukkha]]''. ''Dukkha'' is commonly translated as "suffering", "anxiety", "unsatisfactoriness", "unease", etc., and it is said to have the following three aspects: 
*The obvious suffering of physical and mental illness, growing old, and dying.
*The anxiety or stress of trying to hold onto things that are constantly changing.
*A subtle dissatisfaction pervading all forms of life due to the fact that all forms of life are changing, impermanent and without any inner core or substance. On this level, the term indicates a lack of satisfaction, a sense that things never measure up to our expectations or standards.{{refn|group=note|See the article [[Dukkha]] for further details and citations.}}

The central importance of ''dukkha'' in Buddhist teachings has caused some observers to consider Buddhism to be a pessimistic philosophy. However, the emphasis on ''dukkha'' is not intended to present a pessimistic view of life, but rather to present a realistic practical assessment of the human condition—that all beings must experience suffering and pain at some point in their lives, including the inevitable sufferings of illness, aging, and death.{{sfn|Gethin|1998|p=61}} Contemporary Buddhist teachers and translators emphasize that while the central message of Buddhism is optimistic, the Buddhist view of our situation in life (the conditions that we live in) is neither pessimistic nor optimistic, but realistic.{{refn|group=note|name=realistic|For citations and further clarification, see [[Dukkha#Neither pessimistic nor optimistic, but realistic]]; in particular, see the footnotes in this section for detailed information on sources.}}

The second truth is that the ''[[samudaya|origin]]'' of ''dukkha'' can be known. Within the context of the four noble truths, the origin of ''dukkha'' is commonly explained as craving (Pali: ''[[tanha]]'') conditioned by ignorance (Pali: ''[[Avidya (Buddhism)|avijja]]''). On a deeper level, the root cause of ''dukkha'' is identified as ignorance (Pali: ''[[Avidya (Buddhism)|avijja]]'') of the true nature of things. 

The third noble truth is that the complete ''[[nirodha|cessation]]'' of ''dukkha'' is possible. From the Buddhist point of view, once we have developed a genuine understanding of the causes of suffering, then we can completely eradicate these causes and thus be free from suffering.{{sfn|Ringu Tulku|2005|p=32}}

The fourth noble truth asserts that there is a ''path'' to the cessation of suffering that can be followed. This path is called the [[Noble Eightfold Path]].{{refn|group=note|name=fnt1}}

===The Noble Eightfold Path===
[[File:Dharma Wheel.svg|thumb|upright=0.75|alt=ship's wheel with eight spokes represents the Noble Eightfold Path|The ''[[Dharmachakra]]'' represents the [[Noble Eightfold Path]].]]
{{Main|Noble Eightfold Path}}
In the Buddha's first teaching on the ''four noble truths'', he described a ''path'' to the cessation of suffering that he called the ''noble eightfold path''. This path consists of a set of eight interconnected factors or conditions, that when developed together, lead to the cessation of [[dukkha]].{{sfn|Ajahn Sucitto|2010|p=87-88}} 

These eight factors are: 
* right view (or right understanding), 
* right intention (or right thought), 
* right speech, 
* right action, 
* right livelihood, 
* right effort, 
* right mindfulness, and 
* right concentration.

[[Ajahn Sucitto]] describes this path as "a mandala of interconnected factors that support and moderate each other."{{sfn|Ajahn Sucitto|2010|p=87-88}} The eight factors of the path are ''not'' to be understood as stages, in which each stage is completed before moving on to the next. Rather, they are understood as eight significant dimensions of one's behaviour—mental, spoken, and bodily—that operate in dependence on one another; taken together, they define a complete ''path'', or way of living.{{sfn|Gethin|1998|p=82}}

The eight factors of the path are commonly presented within threefold categories of: wisdom, ethical conduct, and concentration. The table below shows how these three categories are used to help understand the eight factors of the path.

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Eightfold factor
! Description
! Category

<!-- WISDOM -->
|- style="background:#FFFFFF;"
| Right view
|Viewing reality as it is, not just as it appears to be
|rowspan="2"|Wisdom (Skt. ''[[prajñā]]'')

|- style="background:#FFFFFF;"
| Right intention
|Intention of renunciation, freedom and harmlessness
<!-- row counting: next cell can not exist -->

<!-- CONDUCT -->
|- style="background:#E6E6E6;"
| Right speech
|Speaking in a truthful and non-hurtful way
|rowspan="3"|Ethical conduct (Skt. ''[[śīla]]'')
|- style="background:#E6E6E6;" 
|  Right action
|Acting in a non-harmful way
|- style="background:#E6E6E6;" 
|  Right livelihood
|A non-harmful livelihood
<!-- CONDUCT -->
|- style="background:#FFFFFF;"
| Right effort
|Making an effort to improve
|rowspan="3"|Concentration (Skt. ''[[samādhi]]'')
|- style="background:#FFFFFF;"
| Right mindfulness
|Awareness to see things for what they are with clear consciousness;<br/> being aware of the present reality within oneself, without any craving or aversion
|- style="background:#FFFFFF;"
| Right concentration
|Correct meditation or concentration

|}

===Nature of existence===

====Three marks of existence====
{{Main|Three marks of existence}}

The ''three marks of existence'' (impermanence, suffering and no-self) are accepted as core beliefs by all Buddhist traditions. Carol Anderson explains:
:In the 26 centuries since the life of Shakyamuni Buddha, Buddhism has developed into a diverse religion rich with culture, beliefs and practices that can vary between the different traditions. As Buddhism spread into new regions, it became enmeshed in the regional religious beliefs. New religions sprang up that were Buddhist in appearance but which retained little of the Buddha's teachings. As well, new schools of Buddhism arose that approached the original teachings in fresh new ways. With these changes, questions arose as to the true nature of Buddhism. Regardless of the title, the Three Dharma Seals, the Three Marks of Existence...and the Three Universal Characteristics refer to the same concepts. All schools of Buddhism based on Shakyamuni Buddha's teachings accept these concepts as the core of their beliefs thus distinguishing true Buddhism from other religions that might look like Buddhism. It follows then that any teaching that contradicts theses concepts is not a true Buddhist teaching.{{sfn|Anderson|2013|loc=Kindle Locations 972-984}}

In brief, the ''three marks of existence'' are:
* '''Impermanence''' (Pāli: ''[[anicca]]''; Sanskrit: ''anitya'') expresses the Buddhist notion that all [[sankhara|compounded phenomena]] (all things and experiences) are inconstant, unsteady, and impermanent. In the Buddhist view:
*: Nothing in nature is identical with what it was the moment before; in this the Buddha was close to modern science, which has discovered that the relatively stable objects of the macro world derive from particles that are so ephemeral that they barely exist. To underscore life’s fleetingness the Buddha called the components of the human self ''[[skandhas]]''—skeins that hang together as loosely as yarn—and the body a “heap,” its elements no more solidly assembled than grains in a sandpile. But why did the Buddha belabor a point that may seem obvious? Because, he believed, we are freed from the pain of clutching for permanence only if the acceptance of continual change is driven into our very marrow.{{sfn|Smith|Novak|2009|p=57}}

* '''Suffering''' (Pāli: ''[[dukkha]]''; Sanskrit ''{{IAST|duḥkha}}'') -- because all conditioned things are impermanent, and because we fail to recognize this and instead cling to things as if they are permanent, there is suffering, pain, unsatisfactoriness, sorrow, affliction, anxiety, dissatisfaction, discomfort, anguish, stress, misery, frustration, and so on. 

* '''No-self''' (Pāli: ''[[anatta]]''; Sanskrit: ''anātman'') -- upon careful examination, one finds that no phenomenon is really "I" or "mine"; these concepts are in fact constructed by the mind. By analyzing the constantly changing physical and mental constituents ([[skandha]]s) of an individual, the practitioner comes to the conclusion that neither the respective parts nor the person as a whole comprise a self.

A fourth concept, ''[[nirvana]]'' is often added to this list,{{sfn|Anderson|2013|loc=Kindle Locations 972-984}} particularly in the [[Mahayana]] tradition. Thus, in the Mahayana tradition, the list of four concepts (the three marks + ''nirvana'') is referred to as the ''four seals''.

====Dependent arising====
{{Main|Pratityasamutpada}}

The general or universal definition of ''pratityasamutpada'' (or "dependent origination" or "dependent arising" or "interdependent co-arising") is that everything arises in dependence upon multiple causes and conditions; nothing exists as a singular, independent entity.{{refn|group=note|See the article [[Pratītyasamutpāda]] for further details and citations.}}{{refn|group=note|''Pratityasamutpada'' can also be described as follows: that all phenomena are arising together in a mutually interdependent web of cause and effect. When one cause changes or disappears, the resulting object or phenomenon will also change or disappear, as will the objects or phenomena depending on the changing object or phenomenon.}} A traditional example used in Buddhist texts is of three sticks standing upright and leaning against each other and supporting each other. If one stick is taken away, the other two will fall to the ground. Thich Nhat Hanh explains:{{sfn|Thich Nhat Hanh|1999|p=221-222}}
: ''Pratitya samutpada'' is sometimes called the teaching of cause and effect, but that can be misleading, because we usually think of cause and effect as separate entities, with cause always preceding effect, and one cause leading to one effect. According to the teaching of Interdependent Co-Arising, cause and effect co-arise (''samutpada'') and everything is a result of multiple causes and conditions... In the sutras, this image is given: "Three cut reeds can stand only by leaning on one another. If you take one away, the other two will fall." For a table to exist, we need wood, a carpenter, time, skillfulness, and many other causes. And each of these causes needs other causes to be. The wood needs the forest, the sunshine, the rain, and so on. The carpenter needs his parents, breakfast, fresh air, and so on. And each of those things, in turn, has to be brought about by other causes and conditions. If we continue to look in this way, we'll see that nothing has been left out. Everything in the cosmos has come together to bring us this table. Looking deeply at the sunshine, the leaves of the tree, and the clouds, we can see the table. The one can be seen in the all, and the all can be seen in the one. One cause is never enough to bring about an effect. A cause must, at the same time, be an effect, and every effect must also be the cause of something else. Cause and effect inter-are. The idea of first and only cause, something that does not itself need a cause, cannot be applied.{{refn|group=note|Thich Nhat Hanh also refers to this reality of mutual interdependence as 'Interbeing'.}}

====Emptiness====
{{Main|Sunyata}}

In the Mahayana tradition, the principle of pratītyasamutpāda is said to complement the concept of ''emptiness'' (''sunyata''). It is said that because all things arise in dependence upon causes and conditions, they are ''empty'' of inherent existence.{{refn|group=note|In the Mahayana tradition, the principle of pratītyasamutpāda is said to complement the concept of emptiness (sunyata):
* The Dalai Lama states: "...the meaning of ''pratityasamutpada'' is that which arises in dependence upon conditions, in reliance upon conditions, through the force of conditions. On a subtle level, it is explained as the main reason why phenomena are empty of inherent existence."{{sfn|Dalai Lama|1992|p=35}}
* Nan Huai-Chin states: "Buddhist ontology points out that all relative phenomena arise and disappear through processes of cause and effect: this is called "interdependent origination" (Sanskrit: ''pratityasamutpada''; in Chinese ''yuan ch'i''). Accordingly, all such phenomena are dependent on the (temporary) linking of causal factors that bring them into existence and maintain them, and thus they have no stable, absolute identities independent of the web of causation. Lacking absolute independent entities they are said to be inherently empty".{{sfn|Nan Huai-Chin|1994}}
* Jay Garfield states: "That all phenomena are dependently originated is the heart of the Buddhist ontological theory."{{sfn|Edelglass|2009|p=26}}
}}

A classic expression of this relationship was provided by the renowned Indian scholar [[Nagarjuna]] in the twenty-fourth chapter of his ''[[Mūlamadhyamakakārikā|Treatise on the Middle Way]]''; Nagarjuna stated:{{sfn|Geshe Sonam Rinchen|2006|p=21}}
{{quote|
Whatever arises dependently<br/>
Is explained as empty.<br/>
Thus dependent attribution<br/>
Is the middle way.

Since there is nothing whatever<br/>
That is not dependently existent,<br/>
For that reason there is nothing<br/>
Whatsoever that is not empty.
}}

Geshe Sonam Rinchen explains the above quote as follows: "Here Nagarjuna states the Madhyamika or middle way position. Everything that exists does so dependently and everything that is dependently existent necessarily lacks independent objective existence."{{sfn|Geshe Sonam Rinchen|2006|p=21}}

===Life and the world===

====Samsara====
{{Main|Samsara}}
Within Buddhism, samsara is defined as the continual repetitive cycle of birth and death that arises from ordinary beings' grasping and fixating on a self and experiences. 
Specifically, samsara refers to the process of cycling through one rebirth after another within the six realms of existence,{{refn|group=note|name=realms|Earlier Buddhist texts refer to five realms rather than six realms; when described as five realms, the god realm and demi-god realm constitute a single realm.}} where each realm can be understood as physical realm or a psychological state characterized by a particular type of suffering. Samsara arises out of ''[[Avidyā (Buddhism)|avidya]]'' (ignorance) and is characterized by ''[[dukkha]]'' (suffering, anxiety, dissatisfaction). In the Buddhist view, liberation from samsara is possible by following the Buddhist path.{{refn|group=note|name=samsara|See the article [[Samsara]] for further details and citations.}}

====Karma====
{{Main| Karma}}

Within the [[Buddhist]] system of belief, the term ''karma'' is used in two senses:
* On the specific level, ''karma'' refers to those ''actions'' which spring from the volition (''[[cetanā]]''; also "intention" or "urge") of a [[Sentient beings|sentient being]]. ''Karmic actions'' are traditionally likened to a seed that will inevitably ripen into a result or fruition (referred to as ''[[vipāka]]'' or ''[[phala]]'' in Sanskrit and Pali). 
* On the general level, contemporary Buddhist teachers frequently use the term ''karma'' when referring to the entire process of ''karmic action and result''.

Within Buddhism, developing a genuine, experiential understanding of ''karmic action and result'' — i.e., how one's actions will have a consequential outcome — is an essential aspect of the [[Buddhist Paths to liberation|Buddhist path]]. ''Karmic actions'' are considered to be the engine that drives the naturally occurring cycle of rebirth (''[[samsara]]'') for sentient beings. Correspondingly, a complete understanding of the process of ''karmic action and result'' enables beings to free themselves from ''samsara'' and attain ''[[Nirvana (Buddhism)|liberation]]''.{{refn|group=note|name=karmainbuddhism|See the article [[Karma in Buddhism]] for further details and citations.}}

Within Buddhism, the theory of ''karmic action and result'' is identified as part of the broader doctrine of ''dependent origination'' (''[[pratityasamutpada]]''), which states that all phenomena arise as the result of multiple causes and conditions. The theory of ''karmic action and result'' is a specific instance of this broader doctrine that applies to sentient beings. Specifically, when there is a volition (''[[cetanā]]'') behind an action, whether positive, neutral, or negative, then that action is ''karma'', and the corresponding results are ''karmic results''. Thus, every deed of body, speech, or mind is considered to be a ''karmic action'', and the determining factor in the quality of one's actions is one's intentions or motivations.{{refn|group=note|name=karmainbuddhism}}

In the Buddhist view, ''karmic results'' are not considered to be a "judgement" enforced by a God, Deity or other supernatural being that controls the affairs of the Cosmos. Rather, ''karmic results'' are considered to be the outcome of a natural process of cause and effect. Contemporary Buddhist teacher [[Khandro Rinpoche]] explains:{{sfn|Khandro Rinpoche|2003|p=95}}
:Buddhism is a nontheistic philosophy. We do not believe in a creator but in the causes and conditions that create certain circumstances that then come to fruition. This is called karma. It has nothing to do with judgement; there is no one keeping track of our karma and sending us up above or down below. Karma is simply the ''wholeness'' of a cause, or first action, and its effect, or fruition, which then becomes another cause. In fact, one karmic cause can have many fruitions, all of which can cause thousands more creations. Just as a handful of seed can ripen into a full field of grain, a small amount of karma can generate limitless effects.

====Nirvana====
{{Main|Nirvana}}

In the Buddhist tradition, nirvana is described as the extinguishing of the ''fires'' that cause suffering. These fires are typically identified as the fires of attachment (''[[Raga (Buddhism)|raga]]''), aversion (''[[dvesha]]'') and ignorance (''[[Moha (Buddhism)|moha]]'' or ''[[Avidya (Buddhism)|avidya]]'').{{refn|group=note|Nirvana is described as extinguishing the fires of attachment (''[[Raga (Buddhism)|raga]]''), aversion (''[[dvesha]]'') and ignorance (''[[Moha (Buddhism)|moha]]'' or ''[[Avidya (Buddhism)|avidya]]'').
*Rupert Gethin states: "Literally nirvāṇa means ‘blowing out’ or ‘extinguishing’ [...] What the Pali and Sanskrit expression primarily indicates is the event or process of the extinction of the ‘fires’ of greed, aversion, and delusion. At the moment the Buddha understood suffering, its arising, its cessation, and the path leading to its cessation, these fires were extinguished. This process is the same for all who reach awakening, and the early texts term it either nirvāṇa or parinirvāṇa, the complete ‘blowing out’ or ‘extinguishing’ of the ‘fires’ of greed, aversion, and delusion. This is not a ‘thing’ but an event or experience."{{sfn|Gethin|1998|p=75}} 
* Paul Williams states: "[Nirvana] means 'extinguishing', as in 'the extinguishing of a flame', and it signifies soteriologically the complete extinguishing of greed, hatred, and fundamentally delusion (i.e. ignorance), the forces which power samsara."{{sfn|Williams|2002|pp=47-48}}
* Ajahn Sucitto states: "By the extinguishing of the “three fires” of greed, hatred, and delusion, nibbāna gives tangible results in terms of other people’s welfare."{{sfn|Ajahn Sucitto|2010|p=163}}
* Smith and Novak state: "Nirvana is the highest destiny of the human spirit and its literal meaning is “extinction,” but what is to be extinguished are the boundaries of the finite self and the three poisons that feed that self: “The extinction of greed, the extinction of hate, the extinction of delusion: this indeed is called Nirvana.”"{{sfn|Smith|Novak|2009|pp=51-52}}
* Bhikkhu Bodhi states: "The state of perfect peace that comes when craving is eliminated is Nibbāna (nirvāṇa), the unconditioned state experienced while alive with the extinguishing of the flames of greed, aversion, and delusion."{{sfn|Bhikkhu Bodhi|2011|p=25}}
* Donald Lopez states: "[Nirvana] is used to refer to the extinction of desire, hatred, and ignorance and, ultimately, of suffering and rebirth."<ref group=web name="EB=Nirvana">[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/415925/nirvana Donald S. Lopez Jr., ''Nirvana'', Encyclopedia Britannica]</ref>
* See also Gombrich [[Richard Gombrich]], ''Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benāres to Modern Colombo.'' Routledge}}

For example, Rupert Gethin states:{{sfn|Gethin|1998|p=75}}
:Literally nirvāṇa means ‘blowing out’ or ‘extinguishing’ [...] What the Pali and Sanskrit expression primarily indicates is the event or process of the extinction of the ‘fires’ of greed, aversion, and delusion. At the moment the Buddha understood suffering, its arising, its cessation, and the path leading to its cessation, these fires were extinguished. This process is the same for all who reach awakening, and the early texts term it either nirvāṇa or parinirvāṇa, the complete ‘blowing out’ or ‘extinguishing’ of the ‘fires’ of greed, aversion, and delusion. This is not a ‘thing’ but an event or experience.

Contemporary Buddhist scholar Ajahn Sucitto emphasizes that when these fires are extinguished, the mind is freed. Ajahn Sucitto states:{{sfn|Ajahn Sucitto|2010|p=163}}
:The metaphors associated with nibbāna often liken it to the blowing out of a fire. When it is no longer burning, the fire has “nibbāna’d”—the elements on which it was based are no longer in a state of combustion. This may seem like sterility and lifelessness from the viewpoint of the fire, but from the perspective of the elements it means life and potential. That is, when the fires of greed, hatred, and delusion are extinguished, the mind is free to operate in terms of its fullest capacity.

==Textual schools and living traditions==

===What is the difference between a textual school and a living tradition?===
What is the difference between a textual school and a living tradition?
* A ''textual school'' is a school of thought based on a set of texts. It provides the theoretical underpinnings for the living traditions. 
* A ''living tradition'' is a tradition (set of beliefs and practices) based upon one or more textual schools. It is common for living traditions to draw on multiple schools or belief systems, or to have different interpretations of the underlying texts.

===Textual schools===

====Three main schools====
In contemporary Buddhism, there are three major textual schools:

* [[Theravada]] 
** The ''Theravada'' school is based on the following texts:
*** [[Pali Canon|Theravadan Pali Canon]] 
*** [[Atthakatha|Commentaries]] on the texts of the Pali Canon
** This school emphasizes the threefold training of ethics (sila), concentration (samadhi) and wisdom (panna).
** This is the philosophical foundation of the Theravada tradition of Sri Lanka and South-East Asia.

* [[Mahayana]]
** The ''Mahayana'' school is based on:
*** ''Hinayana (Basic Vehicle) texts'': roughly equivalent to the ''Theravadan Pali Canon''
*** ''Mahayana (Great Vehicle) texts'': the Mahayana sutras
*** Commentaries to the above texts written by Mahayana scholars
** This school emphasizes training in ''bodhicitta'' (limitless wisdom and compassion)
** This is the philosophical foundation of the traditions of East Asia, Mongolia, Tibet and the Himalayan region.

* [[Vajrayana]] 
** This school is a subset of the broader Mahayana school.
** The Vajrayana school is based on:
*** All of the texts of the Mahayana school (see above)
*** ''Buddhist tantras'': a specialized group of texts that mainly emphasize methods of practice
** This school emphasizes ''pure perception''
** This is the philosophical basis of Tibetan Buddhism, Newar Buddhism (of Nepal) and some minor sects in Japan and other East-Asian countries.

====What all textual schools have in common====
The foundation of all of Buddhism is the Buddha’s teaching on the [[Four Noble Truths]]; these truths are said to provide a unifying theme, or conceptual framework for all Buddhist thought.{{refn|group=note|name=fnt1}}

These four truths are: the truth of suffering; the truth of the cause of suffering; the truth of the cessation of suffering; and the truth of the path to the cessation of suffering. All Buddhist textual schools accept that: 
* suffering exists (the first noble truth), 
* the causes of suffering can be known (the second noble truth), 
* the cessation of suffering is possible (the third truth), and 
* there is a path that can be followed (the fourth truth). 

A key difference between the various schools and traditions is in the methods used to progress along the path (the fourth truth). As contemporary Tibetan Buddhist scholar and teacher Chogyal Namkai Norbu writes: “All the various traditions are agreed that this basic problem of suffering exists, but they have different methods of dealing with it to bring the individual back to the experience of primordial unity.”

====Theravada school====
[[File:Buddhaghosa_with_three_copies_of_Visuddhimagga.jpg|thumb|[[Buddhaghosa]] (c. 5th century) presenting three copies of the [[Visuddhimagga]].]]
{{Main|Theravada}}

The Theravada school is based on the [[Pali Canon|Theravadan Pali Canon]] and its [[Atthakatha|commentaries]]. In this school, the ''Pali Canon'' is considered to be the original "words of the Buddha". The commentaries were written by later scholars to help organize the teachings of the canon into a coherent system of thought. Both the Pali Canon on the commentaries are written in the [[Pali language]].

The most important commentary in this school is the ''[[Visuddhimagga|The Path of Purification (Visuddhimagga)]]'' by Bhadantácariya Buddhaghosa. Regarding this commentary, contemporary Theravada scholar Bhikkhu Naoamoli states: 
:It systematically summarizes and interprets the teaching of the Buddha contained in the [Pali Canon]... As the principal non-canonical authority of the Theraváda, it forms the hub of a complete and coherent method of exegesis of the [Pali Canon]... And it sets out detailed practical instructions for developing purification of mind.

The Encyclopedia Britannica states:
: [''The Path of Purification''] organizes its material broadly under three headings: sila (morals), samadhi (concentration), and panna (wisdom), but it also comments on and explains a wide range of details of Buddhist doctrine through the use of narrative and by means of direct quotation from and explanation of the canonical texts of the [Pali Canon], presenting Theravada doctrines as a systematic whole. In addition, the Visuddhimagga contains a detailed description of Buddhist meditative techniques and can be regarded as a general reference work on Theravada doctrine.<ref group=web>[https://www.britannica.com/topic/Visuddhimagga ''Visuddhimagga'' in Encyclopedia Britannica]</ref>

The theory and practice outlined in the ''The Path of Purification'' provides the textual foundation of the Theravada tradition of Sri Lanka and South-East Asia.

====Mahayana school====
[[File:Nagarjuna at Samye Ling Monastery.JPG|thumb|Statue of [[Nagarjuna]] from Samye Ling Monastery, Scotland. Nagarjuna was one of the great scholars of the Mahayana school.]]
{{Main|Mahayana}}

Mahayana literally means ''Great Vehicle''. The early Mahayana adherents used this term to distinguish themselves from other early buddhists, who they described as followers of the ''Hinayana (Basic Vehicle)'' tradition.

Thus, the texts of the Mahayana school include:
* ''Hinayana (Basic Vehicle) texts''
** These texts are roughly equivalent to the texts of the Theravadan Pali Canon; though the Mahayana school relies on the Sanskrit versions of these texts
** These texts include the teaching on the Four Noble Truths and other sutras that are accepted by all traditions as authentic teachings of the Buddha{{refn|group=note|Note that Theravada commentaries such as ''The Path of Purification'' are not included within the ''Basic Vehicle'' texts of the Mahayana school.}}
* ''Mahayana (Great Vehicle) texts''
** These are the ''[[Mahayana sutras]]'' and their commentaries.
** The Mahayana sutras are based on the texts of the ''Hinayana (Basic Vehicle)'', but they were first recorded several hundred years after the Hinayana texts were recorded.
** The Mahayana texts accept the validity of the Hinayana texts, but they assert that the Hinayana texts present a limited point of view, and that the Mahayana texts present the higher point of view for beings of superior capacity.
** The Mahayana texts emphasize training in ''[[bodhicitta]]'' (limitless wisdom and compassion)
** Note that the Mahayana sutras are generally not considered as authentic teachings of the Buddha within the Theravada tradition

The texts of the Mahayana school were originally written in Sanskrit, and then translated from Sanskrit to Chinese. The Chinese translations were then translated into Korean and Vietnamese. The Korean translations were then translated into Japanese. At a later period, the texts were also translated from Sanskrit directly into the Tibetan language.

The Mahayana path is described as a “gradual path” of the ''perfections'' and ''bhumis'' as taught in the Mahayana sutras.  Generally speaking, this path emphasizes the gradual development of the ''six perfections'' of generosity, discipline, diligence, patience, meditative concentration and wisdom. The first five perfections are focused on the development of compassion and love on both an aspirational and a practical level. The final perfection of wisdom focuses on development of direct insight into the true nature of reality.

Thus, the Mahayana school emphasizes both:
* direct insight into the nature of reality, and
* limitless love and compassion for all sentient beings.

The Mahayana view of the true nature of reality is that all phenomena are empty of inherent existence. A common way of expressing this view in the Mahayana tradition is to say that all appearances are illusory or dreamlike. This view is expressed in the Diamond Sutra as follows:<ref group=web>Alex Johnson, [http://diamond-sutra.com/ Diamond Sutra – A New Translation], chap. 32</ref>
{{quote|
Like a tiny drop of dew, or a bubble floating in a stream;<br/>
Like a flash of lightning in a summer cloud,<br/>
Or a flickering lamp, an illusion, a phantom, or a dream.<br/>
So is all conditioned existence to be seen.
}}
 
The aspiration for limitless love and compassion for all beings is expressed in the following  prayer from the ''Bodhicaryavattara'':<ref>Translation by the Padmakara Translation Group</ref>
<blockquote>
May I be a guard for those who are without protection.<br/>
A guide for those who journey on the road.<br/>
For those who wish to go across the water,<br/>
May I be a boat, a raft, a bridge.<br/><br/>
May I be an isle for those who yearn for landfall,<br/>
A lamp for those who long for light;<br/>
For those who need a resting place, a bed;<br/>
For those who need a servant, may I be their slave.<br/><br/>
May I be the wishing jewel, the vase of plenty,<br/>
A word of power and the supreme healing.<br/>
May I be the tree of miracles,<br/>
and for every being a source of abundance.<br/><br/>
Thus for every thing that lives,<br/>
As far as are the limits of the sky,<br/>
May I provide their livelihood and nourishment<br/>
Until they pass beyond the bonds of suffering
</blockquote>

Mahayana school provides the textual foundation for:
* The East Asian tradition of China, Korea, Japan, and Vietnam
* The Tibetan tradition (which practices a form of Vajrayana that is based in the Mahayana school)

====Vajrayana school====
[[File:Tilopa.jpg|right|thumb|[[Tilopa]] (988–1069), an influential Indian vajrayana practitioner and teacher.]]
{{Main|Vajrayana}}

Vajrayana is a system of Buddhist thought based on a set of texts that are referred to as [[Buddhist Tantras|Buddhist tantras]]. These texts first appeared in Northern India between the 5th and 7th century CE. Vajrayana thought and practice first influenced Buddhist practitioners in Northern India, and then spread to China, Mongolia, and Tibet. From China, the Varjayana texts and practices were transmitted to Korea and Japan.

The Vajrayana path builds on the foundation of the Mahayana school. Rupert Gethin states that Vajrayana is “a particular approach to the practice of the Buddhist path occurring within the general Mahāyāna philosophical framework…”{{sfn|Gethin|1998|p=268}} Thus, the Vajrayana path includes all the aspects of the Mahayana theory and practice, such as the development of boundless love and compassion, and developing direct insight into the nature of reality. But the Vajrayana path also includes additional “skillful means” to enable a practitioner to reach enlightenment more quickly.

One key difference between these two paths is that whereas the Mahayana path emphasizes transcending samsara in order to reach the state of nirvana, the Vajrayana path gives “special emphasis to the idea of the equivalence of nirvana and samsara.”{{sfn|Gethin|1998|p=268}} In practice, this means that whereas in the ''Mahayana'' tradition one works skillfully to rid oneself of negative emotions such as anger, desire, and so on, in the ''Vajrayana'' tradition, a practitioner is encouraged to view negative emotions as a form of energy that can be directly transformed into wisdom. For example, contemporary scholar Damien Keown explains:
: Based on the view that nirvana and samsara are not different, the Tantras [the Vajrayana texts] teach that anything – even desire – can profitably be used as a means to liberation. The passions come to be regarded not as inherently wicked but simply as a powerful form of energy which – rather like electricity – can be used for many purposes.{{sfn|Keown|2000|loc=chapt. 6}}

The texts of the Vajrayana have been translated from Sanskrit into Tibetan and Chinese, and from Chinese into Korean and Japanese. 

Vajrayana practice remains as the dominant form of practice within the Tibetan tradition. In addition:
* While Vajrayana practice had reportedly died out in China, today many teachers from the Tibetan tradition teach Vajrayana practice methods in China.
* In Japan, there are small sects of Vajrayana practitioners remaining from the original transmission. There are some Tibetan teachers teaching in Japan.
* In the Western countries today, there are also many dharma centers following the Tibetan tradition.
* The Newar Buddhist tradition of Nepal practices a unique Vajrayana tradition. This is the only tradition that still relies Sanskrit texts for is practice rituals and doctrines.

===Living traditions===

{{See also|Living traditions of Buddhism}}

====About living traditions====
Since ancient India until modern times, it has been common for traditions, groups and individuals to be influenced by more than one textual school or tradition. For example:
* Chinese pilgrims to India around 400 CE reported seeing Mahayana and non-Mahayana monks both co-existing in the same monasteries.{{refn|group=note|name=faxian|See account of the monk Faxian, for example.}} This seems to have been a process of self-identification, where those monks who were attracted to the Mahayana sutras identified themselves as Mahayana.
* The East Asian Buddhist tradition was influenced by the native Chinese philosophies of Taoism and Confucianism.
* The Tibetan Buddhist tradition was influenced by the indigenous traditions such as Bon.
* In many countries of Southeast Asia, local indigenous traditions influence the practice of Buddhism in those countries 
* In Western countries today, many contemporary Buddhist practitioners are influenced by more than one Buddhist tradition or textual school.

Contemporary scholar Damian Keown writes:
:When Buddhism spreads it tends not to eradicate existing beliefs but to incorporate them, along with local gods and spirits, into its own cosmology. It is quite common to find Buddhists at the village level [in Southeast Asia] turning to the local gods for solutions to everyday problems – such as curing an illness or finding a marriage partner – and to Buddhism for answers to the larger questions about human destiny.{{sfn|Keown|2000|loc=Kindle Locations 1311-1315}}

====Idealized religion vs. practiced religion====
This distinction between the textual schools and the living traditions is expressed by contemporary scholar James C. Dobbins, as the distinction between an idealized religion (of the doctrines) and the practiced religion (the way people live).

Dobbins writes:
: This distinction between idealized religion and practiced religion is important because there is a widespread tendency to mistake the religious ideal presented in the great doctrinal treatises for the historical reality of how religion was actually practiced. This is not the case. Throughout history there has been a disjunction between idealized and practiced religion. Needless to say, idealized religion informs and shapes practiced religion, and practiced religion likewise modifies and redefines idealized religion. At any particular moment, however, there tends to be a discrepancy between the two. In such circumstances, the ideal should not be mistaken for practiced reality. Hence, when looking at religious documents one needs to be mindful of whether they are prescriptive or descriptive in nature—that is, whether they project an idealized view of religious life or present observations of its actual practice.{{sfn|Dobbins|1991|p=109}}

====Three major traditions====
There is no standard naming convention for the major historical "living traditions" of Buddhism. However, most contemporary Buddhist scholars identify three main traditions: {{sfn|Gethin|1998|p=2}}
{{refn|group=note|Different scholars may classify the main Buddhist traditions differently. For example,
* Robinson & Johnson (1982) categorize "Buddhism Outside of India" as: "The Buddhism of Southeast Asia", "Buddhism in the Tibetan Culture Area", "East Asian Buddhism" and "Buddhism Comes West".
* Rupert Gethin (1998) identifies: Theravada (southern), East Asain, and Tibetan (northern) traditions{{sfn|Gethin|1998|p=2}}
* Southern (Theravada), eastern, and northern.<ref>(Harvey, 1990); (Gombrich,1984)</ref>
* See also: Prebish & Keown, ''Introducing Buddhism'', ebook, Journal of Buddhist Ethics, 2005, printed ed, Harper, 2006}}
* The Southeast Asian tradition of Sri Lanka and South-East Asia, also referred to as 'southern' or 'Theravada' Buddhism. Its canonical scriptures are preserved in the Pali language.
* The East Asian tradition of China, Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, also sometimes referred to as ‘eastern’ or 'Chinese'  Buddhism. Its scriptures are preserved in Chinese and its general outlook is that of the ''Mahayana''...
* The Tibetan tradition of Tibet, Mongolia and the Himalayan region, also sometimes referred to as 'northern' or 'Tibetan cultural' Buddhism. Its scriptures are preserved in the Tibetan language. Its outlook is broadly that of the ''Mahayana'', but its more specific orientation is that of the Vajrayana (Tantric Buddhism).

Within these major traditions, there are a variety of smaller traditions and sects.

====What all traditions share in common====
Contemporary scholar Rupert Gethin identifies the following areas of Buddhist thought and practice that are common to all major traditions of Buddhism:{{sfn|Gethin|1998|p=3}}
* the story of the Buddha 
* a textual and scriptural tradition 
* the framework of the four noble truths 
* the monastic and lay ways of life 
* a cosmology based around karma and rebirth 
* the teaching of no self and dependent arising  
* a progressive path of practice leading on from good conduct and devotions through stages of meditation to a higher understanding 
* the theoretical systems of either the Abhidharma or the Madyamaka and Yogācāra 
* the path of the bodhisattva

====Southeast Asian Buddhism (as a living tradition)====
[[File:A young monk against the background of Big Buddha statue in Weherahena Temple. Matara, Southern Province, Sri Lanka.jpg|thumb|alt=A young monk in saffron robes standing in Sri Lanka temple|A young [[bhikkhu]] in Sri Lanka]]
Southeast Asian Buddhism refers to the Buddhist traditions of Sri Lanka, Burma (Myanmar), Thailand, Cambodia and Laos. 
:While the Theravāda [Southeast Asian] Buddhism of the Sri Lanka and South-East Asia should not be viewed as a uniform and monolithic whole, it does have a certain unity exemplified by the persistence of one main monastic Vinaya lineage and the authority of the Pali canon and its commentaries, inherited from the Mahāvihāra of ancient Anurādhapura. But this is no simple orthodoxy; a variety of interpretations and practices have probably always existed and persist down to modern times.{{sfn|Gethin|1998|p=253}}

Thus, while each country or region within the Souteast Asian (Theravada) Buddhist world relies on the same core texts, the outer expression of the tradition varies from country to country. In many cases, the practice of Buddhism is intertwined with local religious beliefs.{{sfn|Keown|2000|loc=Kindle Locations 1311-1315}} In addition, with the exception of Thailand, the other countries of South-East Asia were colonized by Western powers during the Western colonial era. Thus, modern day Buddhism in these countries is influenced by its response to Western Christian missionaries. For example, in Sri Lanka the response to Christian missionary attempts included a reformation movement that encouraged lay Buddhist practitioners (non-monastics) to study the dharma and practice meditation.

Regarding dharma practice, Alexander Berzin explains:
:Theravada, practiced in Southeast Asia, emphasizes the practice of mindfulness meditation. This is done by focusing on the breath and the sensations in the body while sitting, and on the movements and intentions to move while walking extremely slowly. With mindfulness of the arising and falling of each moment, one gains an experiential realization of impermanence. When this understanding is applied to analyzing all one's experience, one realizes that there is no permanent, unchanging self that exists independently of everything and everyone else. All is momentary changes. In this way, one gains an understanding of reality that will liberate oneself from self-centered concern and the unhappiness it brings.

:Theravada also teaches meditations on immeasurable love, compassion, equanimity and joy, but only in the last decades has it had a movement of what is called "Engaged Buddhism," starting in Thailand, for engaging Buddhists in programs of social and environmental help.

:Theravada monks study and chant the Buddhist scriptures and perform ritual ceremonies for the lay public. The monks go on daily rounds of silent begging for alms, and the householders practice generosity by offering them food.<ref group=web name=Berzin_types>Alexander Berzin. [https://studybuddhism.com/en/tibetan-buddhism/about-buddhism/the-world-of-buddhism/types-of-buddhism Types of Buddhism]</ref>

====East Asian Buddhism (as a living tradition)====
[[File:Ginkakuji Temple Togudo 2009 059.jpg|thumb|alt=Ginkaku-ji, a Zen temple in Kyoto, Japan with stone slab bridge over stream|A Zen temple in Kyoto, Japan]]
{{Main|East Asian Buddhism}}
The East Asian Buddhist tradition (aka 'Eastern Buddhism') is a broad category that refers to the Buddhist traditions of China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam. All these traditions share a common basis of the [[Chinese Buddhist canon]], which is grounded in the [[Mahayana]] school. For the most part, the sub-traditions within Korea, Japan, and Vietnam derive directly from corresponding sub-traditions within Chinese Buddhism, although they eventually developed distinctive local traditions. 

Buddhism first entered China via the "[[Silk Road]]" routes through central Asia sometime during the Han dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE). From China, Buddhism entered the Korean peninsula in the fourth century, and then Japan in the sixth century.<ref>Gethin, Rupert (1998-07-16). The Foundations of Buddhism (p. 257). Oxford University Press. Kindle Edition.</ref> Buddhism also entered north Vietnam from China during the third century.

There are a variety of traditions within East Asian Buddhism, such as:
* Chinese [[Chan]] (Japanese [[Zen]]): which emphasizes sitting meditation
* [[Pure Land Buddhism]]: which emphasizes mantra recitation

====Tibetan Buddhism (as a living tradition)====
{{Main|Tibetan Buddhism}}
[[File:IMG_1016_Lhasa_Barkhor.jpg|thumb|Buddhists performing prostrations in front of Jokhang Monastery, Lhasa.]]
[[Alexander Berzin]] writes:<ref group=web name=Berzin_types/>
:The Tibetan form of Mahayana Buddhism found throughout Central Asia preserves the full historical development of Indian Buddhism, particularly the traditions of the great monastic universities such as Nalanda. Thus, it emphasizes study, particularly about the nature of the mind, the emotions and reality, through the medium of logic and debate, carried out in conjunction with intense meditation on these topics.

:This approach is combined, in Tibet, with the Indian Buddhist tradition of tantra practice, in which one uses the powers of the imagination and works with the subtle energies of the body to transform oneself into a Buddha. This is done by concentrating on voidness (emptiness) and compassion, and within that context, imagining oneself to have become a specific Buddha-form. Although such forms are sometimes called "meditation deities," they are not the equivalent of God in meaning or function, and Buddhism is not in any way a polytheistic religion. Each Buddha-form is a symbolic representation of one aspect of a Buddha's enlightenment, such as wisdom or compassion. Visualizing oneself in such a form and reciting the sacred syllables (mantras) associated with it helps one to overcome one's deluded, negative self-image and to develop the qualities embodied by that figure. Such practices are very advanced and require close supervision by a fully qualified teacher.

:Tibetan Buddhism also has a great deal of chanting and ritual, often designed to eliminate negative forces and interference visualized in the form of demons. While performing such rituals, one imagines oneself in an extremely forceful form as a meditational aid for gaining the energy and confidence to overcome difficulties. There is also great emphasis on meditational techniques for cultivating love and compassion, also involving the use of visualization.

===Timeline of early development of schools and traditions===
{{see|Timeline of Buddhism}}
The following chart provides a rough timeline of the development of the different schools/traditions:{{refn|group=note|See the article [[Timeline of Buddhism]] for further details and citations.}}
{{Buddhist traditions timeline}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note}}

==References==
===Print===
{{Reflist}}
===Web===
{{reflist|group=web}}

==Sources cited in this article==
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* {{Citation| last = Bhikkhu Bodhi | year =2011 | title =The Noble Eightfold Path: Way to the End of Suffering  | publisher =Independent Publishers Group |edition= Kindle }}

* {{citation 
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*{{citation
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* {{Citation
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* {{Citation
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* {{Citation| last =Geshe Sonam Rinchen| year =2006| title =How Karma Works: The Twelve Links of Dependent Arising| publisher =Snow Lion}}

* {{Citation| last =Gethin | first = Rupert | year =1998 | title =Foundations of Buddhism | publisher =Oxford University Press}}

* {{Citation 
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| last =Lopez 
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| last =Nan Huai-Chin 
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* {{Citation
| last= Ringu Tulku 
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* {{Citation
| last1 = Robinson
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| title = Buddhist Religions: A Historical Introduction (fifth edition)
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{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
These are general sources that are not cited in the article. This list is by nature arbitrary.

{{Refbegin|30em}}
* Bechert, Heinz & Richard Gombrich (ed.) (1984). ''The World of Buddhism'', Thames & Hudson.

*{{citation | last=Donath | first= Dorothy C.|title=Buddhism for the West: Theravāda, Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna; a comprehensive review of Buddhist history, philosophy, and teachings from the time of the Buddha to the present day|publisher=Julian Press | year =1971 | isbn =0-07-017533-0}}

* {{citation | last =Goldstein | first =Joseph | year =2002|title=One Dharma: The Emerging Western Buddhism|publisher=HarperCollins}}

* {{Citation | last =Gombrich | first =Richard F. | year =1997 | title =How Buddhism Began | publisher =Munshiram Manoharlal}}

* {{Citation | last =Jong | first =J.W. de | year =1993 | title =The Beginnings of Buddhism | journal =The Eastern Buddhist, vol. 26, no. 2}}

* {{citation 
| last =Juergensmeyer
| first = Mark 
| title=The Oxford Handbook of Global Religions|series=Oxford Handbooks in Religion and Theology
|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2006|isbn=978-0-19-513798-9}}

* {{citation | last =Lopez | first =Donald S.| year =2001 | title =The Story of Buddhism | publisher =HarperCollins }}

*Morgan, Kenneth W. (ed), ''The Path of the Buddha: Buddhism Interpreted by Buddhists'', Ronald Press, New York, 1956; reprinted by Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi; distributed by Wisdom Books

*Robinson, Richard H. and Willard L. Johnson (1970; 3rd ed., 1982). ''The Buddhist Religion: A Historical Introduction'' (Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing). ISBN 0-534-01027-X.

*{{citation | last =Walpola Rahula | year =2007 | title =What the Buddha Taught | publisher =Grove Press. Kindle Edition }}

* {{citation 
| last = Williams
| first = Paul 
| title =Mahayana Buddhism: the doctrinal foundations 
| publisher =Routledge | location =London|year=1989|isbn=0-415-02537-0}}

* Williams, Paul (ed.) (2005). ''Buddhism: Critical Concepts in Religious Studies'', 8 volumes, Routledge, London & New York.

{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Buddhism}}
*{{cite web|publisher=Victoria and Albert Museum|url=http://www.vam.ac.uk/collections/asia/asia_features/buddhism/index.html|title=Buddhism&nbsp;— objects, art and history|work=Asia|accessdate=2007-12-06}}
*[http://www.sacred-texts.com/bud/index.htm Buddhist texts at Sacred Texts.com]

 
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[[Category:Encyclopedia of Buddhism]]
[[Category:Gautama Buddha]]